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Digital Apollo: Human and Machine in Spaceflight (Mit Press) Paperback – Illustrated, September 30, 2011

4.5 4.5 out of 5 stars 289 ratings

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The incredible story of how human pilots and automated systems worked together to achieve the ultimate achievement in flight—the lunar landings of NASA’s Apollo program
 
As Apollo 11’s Lunar Module descended toward the moon under automatic control, a program alarm in the guidance computer’s software nearly caused a mission abort. Neil Armstrong responded by switching off the automatic mode and taking direct control. He stopped monitoring the computer and began flying the spacecraft, relying on skill to land it and earning praise for a triumph of human over machine. In
Digital Apollo, engineer-historian David Mindell takes this famous moment as a starting point for an exploration of the relationship between humans and computers in the Apollo program. In each of the six Apollo landings, the astronaut in command seized control from the computer and landed with his hand on the stick. Mindell recounts the story of astronauts’ desire to control their spacecraft in parallel with the history of the Apollo Guidance Computer. From the early days of aviation through the birth of spaceflight, test pilots and astronauts sought to be more than “spam in a can” despite the automatic controls, digital computers, and software developed by engineers.
 
Digital Apollo examines the design and execution of each of the six Apollo moon landings, drawing on transcripts and data telemetry from the flights, astronaut interviews, and NASA’s extensive archives. Mindell’s exploration of how human pilots and automated systems worked together to achieve the ultimate in flight—a lunar landing—traces and reframes the debate over the future of humans and automation in space. The results have implications for any venture in which human roles seem threatened by automated systems, whether it is the work at our desktops or the future of exploration.
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Editorial Reviews

Review

“[A] wealth of research that even the most informed space fans can enjoy. Mindell avoids the temptation to glorify the space program, instead dealing with the nitty gritty logistics involved in getting a man to the moon. Digital Apollo succeeds in providing an inside track to one of the most difficult technological challenges of the 20th century.”
—James Thorne, coolhunting.com
 
“Mindell joyfully plumbs the deep history of Apollo’s decade-long clash between the MIT eggheads who built the computers and the thrill-jockey military test pilots who used them.”
IEEE Spectrum

“The book is a refreshing reminder that it is still possible to uncover new stories about the early years of the American space program.”
—Dwayne A. Day, Air & Space

About the Author

David A. Mindell is Dibner Professor of the History of Engineering and Manufacturing, Professor of Engineering Systems, and Director of the Program in Science, Technology, and Society at MIT. He is the author of Between Human and Machine: Feedback, Control, and Computing before Cybernetics and War, Technology, and Experience aboard the USS Monitor.

Product details

  • ASIN ‏ : ‎ 0262516101
  • Publisher ‏ : ‎ The MIT Press; Illustrated edition (September 30, 2011)
  • Language ‏ : ‎ English
  • Paperback ‏ : ‎ 376 pages
  • ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 9780262516105
  • ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0262516105
  • Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 1.6 pounds
  • Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 7.06 x 0.99 x 9 inches
  • Customer Reviews:
    4.5 4.5 out of 5 stars 289 ratings

About the author

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David A. Mindell
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Electrical engineer, historian, and entrepreneur. Co-Founder and partner at Unless, a new investment firm focused on supporting companies at the forefront of industrial transformation.

Founder and Executive Chairman at Humatics with a mission to revolutionize how people and machines locate, navigate and collaborate.

A Professor of Aerospace Engineering at MIT, David is an expert on robotic navigation and human interactions with autonomous systems in air, sea, and space. As Dibner Professor of the History of Engineering and Manufacturing, David is a leading authority on generations of inventors, engineers, entrepreneurs, and workers within the great arcs of technological change. He has led or participated in more than 25 oceanographic expeditions, written six books, and is an inventor on 34 patents in RF navigation, autonomous systems, and AI-assisted piloting. He also spent five years as a Department Head at MIT. David co- Chaired MIT’s Task Force on the Work of the Future. David has undergraduate degrees from Yale and a Ph.D. from MIT.

Customer reviews

4.5 out of 5 stars
289 global ratings

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Customers say

Customers find the book informative and well-researched. They find it readable and enjoyable, with an interesting story about the development of Apollo technology. The book provides useful insights into automation and exploration. Many readers consider it a companion to The Apollo Guidance Computer and helpful for writers seeking to publish their own works about the technology itself.

AI-generated from the text of customer reviews

38 customers mention "Information content"38 positive0 negative

Customers find the book provides informative details on the Apollo program. It covers both technical and human aspects with good research and chronology. Readers appreciate the comprehensive coverage of computing and flight control in general.

"...It is also a story of public imagery, professional identities and social relationships among engineers, pilots, flight controllers and many others,..." Read more

"...allowed it to succeed, the history of its use, and the bigger picture issues of human factors and automation interface issues in complex systems in..." Read more

"This is wonderful book on the technological side of Apollo. I have not found another that even comes close...." Read more

"...to measure altitude and velocity while throttling the engine, adjusting attitude and driving various cockpit indicators to keep the astronauts..." Read more

23 customers mention "Readability"18 positive5 negative

Customers find the book easy to read and engaging. They appreciate the detailed coverage of Apollo's guidance systems and software design in chapters 9 and 10.

"...half of Dr. David Mindell's superb volume covers those subjects, very readably and in great detail. But the book's scope is far broader than that...." Read more

"In "Digital Apollo" David Mindell has created a thoughtful and readable account of the design of the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC), the software..." Read more

"...Again a great book, just one with minor flaws." Read more

"...But sadly the book is just absolutely tedious to read...." Read more

12 customers mention "Storytelling"12 positive0 negative

Customers find the storytelling engaging and informative. They appreciate the detailed descriptions of the events and the history of electronic devices. While the events are accurately depicted, some feel the narrative lacks soul.

"...It is a story of human pilots, of automated systems, and of the two working together to achieve the ultimate in flight...." Read more

"...The book traces the history of the AGC, discusses its growth and capabilities, and its real world use...." Read more

"...It also gives a synopsis of the last few moments of each Apollo landing on the moon...." Read more

"...most exciting book you'll read, but a well-researched and often fun chronology of not only the development of modern flight controls but the tension..." Read more

3 customers mention "Automation"3 positive0 negative

Customers find the book useful for professionals in automation. They appreciate the story about human pilots and automated systems working together. The book also explores automation in exploration.

"...It is a story of human pilots, of automated systems, and of the two working together to achieve the ultimate in flight...." Read more

"...approach to complex human factors, ergonomic, and automation issues to be extraordinarily useful, especially to professionals in the field...." Read more

"Terrific deep dive into the Apollo AGC & automation in exploration...." Read more

3 customers mention "Companionship"3 positive0 negative

Customers find the book useful for writing and journalism. They say it's a good companion to The Apollo Guidance Computer and provides links to other books that explain more about the technology itself.

"...This is a good companion to _The_Apollo_Guidance_Computer_. The AGC book describes thoroughly how the AGC works, and how and what is connected to...." Read more

"...It is well-documented. I found it useful to send me to other books which explain more about the technology itself. But on its own?..." Read more

"...I think Digital Apollo will become good reference and companion for writers/journalists seeking to publish their own material about Apollo..." Read more

Top reviews from the United States

  • Reviewed in the United States on February 5, 2011
    You might think a book entitled "Digital Apollo" would be about the development, programming and operation of the digital computers in the Apollo Command (CM) and Lunar (LM) Modules. You would be partially right. About half of Dr. David Mindell's superb volume covers those subjects, very readably and in great detail. But the book's scope is far broader than that. It is really nothing less than a comprehensive examination of the relationships between humans and machines from the earliest days of aviation, through the X-15, Mercury, Gemini, Apollo and Space Shuttle eras, and into the future of spaceflight.

    It's a fascinating story that has not, to my knowledge, previously been told in any depth. The evolution of the Apollo computer hardware and software occurred in parallel with the evolution of the attitudes of steely eyed NASA astronauts, who fought hard to avoid relinquishing any control to machines. All the early astronauts were test pilots--their hard-won experiences with primitive vacuum-tube systems in aircraft had convinced them that "electronics always fail." Thus they opposed NASA's decision, mandated by the complexity of lunar missions, to depend largely on new-fangled transistorized digital computers to help them fly the Apollo spacecraft. At one time, in those days before "fly-by-wire" control systems, some Apollo astronauts wanted actual cables connecting a conventional aircraft-type stick with the CM's attitude control rocket motors. That didn't happen. They feared that computer failures would jeopardize their missions and perhaps cost them their lives. That also didn't happen. To find out what DID happen, there's no better source than "Digital Apollo."

    Dr. Mindell says his book "...tells the story of the relationship between human and machine in the Apollo project and how that relationship shaped the experience and the technology of flying to the moon. It is a story of human pilots, of automated systems, and of the two working together to achieve the ultimate in flight. It is also a story of public imagery, professional identities and social relationships among engineers, pilots, flight controllers and many others, each with their own visions of spaceflight." That's a good summary, but I'd like to add to it. First, words like "social relationships" and "working together" and "visions" should not deter technophiles from reading "Digital Apollo." Those subjects are all in there, but much of the book is at the down-and-dirty technical level of bits and bytes and magnetic core memories and DSKYs and other esoterica. Dr. Mindell superbly integrates the human and computer stories in a way that almost anyone should find interesting. Second, "Digital Apollo" is one of the best-written spaceflight books I've read in years. Its tone is brisk and conversational, but the information it contains is deep, broad and very well-explained. You don't have to be a space cadet to enjoy it. It is also exceptionally accurate. I came across only a few minor errors in the parts of the story that I know, such as calling a metal alloy used in the X-15 "Iconel-X" rather than "Inconel-X" (the alloy and the name came from the International Nickel Company, hence "Inco").

    "Digital Apollo" fills a niche in the history of technology and spaceflight in a most outstanding way. It reminds me a little of Tracy Kidder's "The Soul of A New Machine," and that is high praise indeed. Even if you think you know Apollo, you should read it. You're sure to learn a lot, and be entertained in the process. I recommend it most highly.
    23 people found this helpful
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  • Reviewed in the United States on August 31, 2009
    In "Digital Apollo" David Mindell has created a thoughtful and readable account of the design of the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC), the software that allowed it to succeed, the history of its use, and the bigger picture issues of human factors and automation interface issues in complex systems in general. While I differ with him on some of his perspectives (I am a pilot, and tend to side with the "man in the loop" opinions held by the astronauts, most eloquently voiced by Neil Armstrong and Dave Scott), I found the entire book engrossing and his approach to complex human factors, ergonomic, and automation issues to be extraordinarily useful, especially to professionals in the field.

    The book traces the history of the AGC, discusses its growth and capabilities, and its real world use. I was especially pleased with chapters nine and ten which dealt in detail with each of the six landings, differences between the landings, and differing attitudes held by the various astronauts about the computer and its functionality. I was pleased with the detailed coverage that Apollo 12 got, and the explanations of the increasing complexity of the "J missions" which took heavier LMs into much more difficult terrain much more steeply. Mindell gives the best explanation I have yet read (p. 205) of the use of the Landing Point Designator (LPD), and computer incorporation of landing radar returns and resulting Delta H data into final altitude solutions for the crew. As an aside, don't stop reading until the very end: the very last page (p. 361) contans an excellent explanation of the extremely well rendered cover illustration depicting the view from Armstrong's window at about 520 feet above the lurain.

    The book is, like any endeavor of this scope, not perfect, with an occasional error or typo: most seem to be due to spell check artifacts not recognizing unusual word use. (The most obvious example is the discussion of the Apollo 1201 and 1202 program alarms on p. 222 which he refers to as "executive overload" instead of "executive overflow" alarms, even though he subsequently used the word overflow correctly in reference to these same events. Amusingly enough, the quote about the alarms from Norman Mailer doesn't really make sense if you read the word as "overload.") This is, of course, nitpicking, and I absolutely don't intend to take away from a brilliant career accomplishment.

    The ideal reader for this book will care passionately about manned space flight, and will find Apollo especially worthy of in-depth study. The book does not require any previous knowledge of spaceflight, human factors, computer interface issues, or aviation, but will be slower going for someone with no background in those areas (though still worthwhile). It is not a technical book in the sense that only engineers, programmers, astronauts, or pilots can glean useful information from it, but it does touch on a variety of complex subjects. Fortunately Mindell is more than up to the task and makes learning about this fascinating subject highly rewarding. I recommend this book very highly.
    9 people found this helpful
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  • Reviewed in the United States on January 5, 2013
    This is wonderful book on the technological side of Apollo. I have not found another that even comes close. I would have loved to give it 5 stars, but many of the photos and illustrations were missing. Also most of the ones that were present were very small and of low resolution. I could forgive that for they would be all that an early Kindle could display, but on a Kindle Fire they simply are too small.

    Again a great book, just one with minor flaws.
    3 people found this helpful
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Top reviews from other countries

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  • Eduardo Henrique dos Santos
    5.0 out of 5 stars Excelente leitura
    Reviewed in Brazil on November 10, 2021
    Eu curti demais o livro. Ele realmente traz uma visão diferente do que se imagina pelo título. Apesar de se procurar elucidar a grande oportunidade e avanços provocados pela tecnologia digital, ora engatinhando, é possível ter uma noção boa do que ocorreu nos instantes antes, durante e após a definição do presidente Kennedy de levar o homem à lua.

    Entende-se o quão a tecnologia evoluiu desde os irmãos Wright até a ida do do homem à lua. Tudo isso em apenas duas gerações.

    Além disso, o livro aborda os conflitos entre a decisão de máquinas autônomas fazendo tudo ou a possibilidade de o homem ter influência sobre essas máquinas, dando-se ou não o devido valor aos pilotos de caça e astronautas. Isso desde os projetos Mercury e Gemini, e que tiveram influência fundamental nas decisões de Engenharia de sistemas que nortearam todo o programa Apollo.

    Mostra um pouco do desafio em se desenvolver algo inédito e desacreditado por muitos, chamado computador digital, instalado sem redundância em uma nave espacial, preparada para funcionar por 8 dias consecutivos, com memória limitada e de extrama dificuldade de programação e teste.

    Além disso, o livro aborda o que ocorreu em todas as missões Apollo. Há uma descrição detalhada da entrada em órbita lunar e pouso do Eagle sob o comando do Armstrong, além das dificuldades e o quão ele foi fundamental para que o pouso realmente ocorresse.

    O livro, mais do que agradável, tem muita história viva, pessoas fundamentais, nomes que só tinha ouvido falar quando nos estudos da matéria de Controle na faculdade e a importância dessas pessoas em todas as façanhas desse feito de engenharia.

    Só quem trabalha com tecnologia sabe as dificuldades de refazer esse feito hoje em dia. O pessoal fez isso há 52 anos. So... Respect!

    Recomendo a todos aqueles entusiastas de tecnologia, espaço, aeronáutica, engenharia de sistemas, navegação e sobretudo para quem gosta de ler sobre boas histórias.
  • Andy
    5.0 out of 5 stars Very good book, exactly what I was looking for
    Reviewed in France on March 8, 2024
    This book covers both technical aspects and historical aspects of spaceflight dynamics. Topics such as the X15, Mercury, Gemini and Apollo are covered in relative depth.
    I particularly enjoyed this book (you know, I'm something of a space fan myself...) because it sheds light on things that I'd never heard about before and that are usually sidelined as seen less interesting than the astronaut's experience (im not saying that it's less interesting).
    Definitely a must read for space exploration enthusiasts.
  • Amazon Customer
    5.0 out of 5 stars Good book that covers all aspects of the Apollo missions
    Reviewed in the United Kingdom on March 1, 2021
    I am very interested in the history of the apollo missions and the computer systems that enabled them to land on the moon. This book is in two halfs, the first is more focused on the astronauts and the pre apollo planes and training. The second half focuses on the computing and technology usef.
  • danny
    5.0 out of 5 stars Da non perdere
    Reviewed in Italy on September 9, 2018
    Da non perdere. È pieno di dettagli tecnici riguardanti l'elettronica di bordo del CSM ed in particolare del computer di navigazione. Sono un ingegnere elettronico e l'ho trovato accurato.
  • Juan Puyol
    5.0 out of 5 stars Indispensable
    Reviewed in Spain on November 14, 2013
    Lo he disfrutado de principio a fin aunque, como ingeniero que se dedica a desarrollar sistemas de control, me hubiera gustado un poco más de "chicha" técnica.

    Es llamativo ver cómo algo que al principio se pensó usar para poco más que sustituir a los integradores analógicos de los acelerómetros del sistema inercial, pasó a ser una herramienta que, de no haber existido, habría hecho prácticamente inviable el proyecto Apolo.

    El sistema de almacenamiento del código en memoria de sólo lectura a base de "trenzas" de hilos plagadas de ferritas resulta enternecedor visto desde nuestra perspectiva.

    Decisiones como forzar que cada rutina guardase continuamente en memoria no volátil su estado de manera que pudiese continuar en el punto en el que estaba en caso de rearranque del procesador por intervención del watch-dog (algo que por lo visto sucedía bastantes veces), con lo que estos rapidísimos (por no haber sistema operativo) rearranques apenas entorpecían los procesos de control, pueden resultar llamativas hoy día.

    En fin, multitud de detalles interesantes para el lector con formación técnica, pero también para el lego en la materia.